Appendix 1. Power and Drive Types

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Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) - Gasoline

Gasoline and diesel vehicles are fundamentally alike, both utilizing internal combustion engines to drive their wheels. In gasoline-powered vehicles, a spark ignites the air-fuel mixture within the combustion chamber, propelling the vehicle forward. Conversely, diesel engines employ a compression-ignition system, where the high compression of the air-fuel mixture triggers combustion. While gasoline is the prevalent fuel choice, various alternative fuel options utilize similar engine components and systems. 

Pros

• Wide availability and infrastructure: Gasoline is readily available at gas stations across the globe, making it convenient for refueling. The widespread infrastructure of gas stations eliminates range anxiety, a concern for electric vehicles.
• Power and performance: Gasoline engines typically offer more flexible power than electric vehicles, making them well-suited for towing, off-roading, and high-performance applications.
• Maturity and reliability: Gasoline engine technology has been refined over decades, resulting in mature and reliable powertrains. Additionally, gasoline engines are generally less expensive to maintain and repair than electric vehicles.
• Affordability: Gasoline-powered vehicles are often less expensive to purchase than electric vehicles, making them more accessible to a wider range of consumers.

Cons

• Environmental impact: Gasoline combustion releases harmful emissions,
• including carbon dioxide, which contribute to climate change and air pollution.
• Fuel efficiency: Gasoline engines are generally less fuel-efcient than electric
• vehicles, meaning they require more frequent refueling and have higher fuel costs.
• Dependence on fossil fuels: Gasoline is derived from petroleum, a finite fossil fuel resource. Reliance on gasoline contributes to energy insecurity and environmental concerns.
• Noise pollution: Gasoline engines produce more noise pollution than electric vehicles, especially during acceleration.

Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) - Diesel

Under the hood, diesel vehicles share a fundamental similarity with their gasoline-powered counterparts: they both employ internal combustion engines to generate power. However, a key distinction lies in the ignition method. Diesel engines rely on a compression-ignition system, where the fuel ignites spontaneously due to the intense heat generated by compressed air within the engine cylinders. In contrast, gasoline engines utilize a spark-ignition system, where electrical sparks are used to initiate combustion. 

Pros

• Typically 25% to 30% more fuel-efficient than similar gasoline engines. 
• Produce more torque than gasoline engines, which gives them better towing performance. 
• Known for their durability and can last for hundreds of thousands of miles.  
• Regular maintenance costs can be lower than gasoline engines because they have fewer spark plugs, ignition coils, and other components.

Cons

• Typically higher initial purchase prices compared to similar gasoline vehicles. 
• Generally noisier with more vibrations than gasoline vehicles. 
• Diesel fuel usually costs more, which negates its slight advantage in fuel economy. 
• Regular maintenance costs may be lower than gasoline engines, but repairs are typically more expensive. 
• Despite emissions control advances, diesel engines still emit higher levels of particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) than gasoline engines. 
• Diesel fuel is more susceptible to contamination from water or other impurities, which can damage the fuel injection system and lead to costly repairs. 
• Diesel engines may experience reduced performance and increased emissions in cold weather conditions. 
• In some regions, diesel fuel availability may be limited compared to gasoline. 
• Resale value may be lower than gasoline vehicles due to the factors above.

Alternative Fuels 

If you are interested in alternative fuels such as electricity, hydrogen, or biofuels, the sections below cover how they work, along with pros and cons. For more details, visit the U.S. Department of Energy at www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels. The EPA provides a reality check on common myths about electric vehicles at: www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/electric-vehicle-myths. J.D. Power also has a useful EV guide at www.jdpower.com/electric-vehicles. 

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)

All-electric vehicles are propelled 100% by an electric motor, in contrast to the internal combustion engines of conventional vehicles. The heart of an EV lies in its large traction battery pack, which stores the electrical energy that fuels the motor. Unlike their gasoline-powered counterparts, EVs emit no tailpipe pollutants, contributing to cleaner air and a greener environment. Moreover, the absence of liquid fuel components, such as fuel pumps, fuel lines, and fuel tanks, simplifies the EV's design and operation.

The electric car landscape is very dynamic and continually evolving. So if you're considering one, it would be best to survey the range of manufacturers and vehicles offering features that meet your needs. Do your research:  

• Understand the various EV and PHEV types and their fuel efficiency, driving modes, and common features so you can ask relevant questions.
• Ask about charging options: Inquire about home charging setup, public charging options in your area, and potential charging costs. 
• Compare charging speeds: Different models offer varying charging speeds, impacting how quickly you can replenish the battery. 
• Consider maintenance: EVs generally require less maintenance than gas cars but understand the recommended service intervals and costs.

In accordance with new IRS regulations, beginning January 1, 2024, Clean Vehicle Tax Credits must be initiated and approved at the time of sale. Buyers are advised to obtain a copy of the IRS’s confirmation that a “time-of-sale” report was submitted successfully by the dealer. Get IRS publication 5900 to learn more.

More tax credit info:rmation:

• Check which cars get the tax credit at FuelEconomy.gov
• FAQ: fueleconomy.gov/feg/taxfaqs.shtml
• Credits for pre-owned vehicles: fueleconomy.gov/feg/taxused.shtml

Miscellaneous info: 

• Plug in America: www.pluginamerica.org
• The Electric Vehicle Association: www.myeva.org
• The Sierra Club: www.sierraclub.org/electric-vehicles

Pros

• Government incentives: The purchase or lease of an EV is subject to a variety of local, state, and federal incentives in the form of discounts, tax credits, rebates, discounts, fee waivers, free charging, and preferential access to parking and HOV lanes. Effective January 2024, the EV Tax Credit is now applied at the point of sale, rather than later on your tax return. More information, including which vehicles are eligible, can be found at afdc.energy.gov/laws/409.
• Zero tailpipe emissions: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, contributing to cleaner air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. This is particularly beneficial in urban areas with high pollution levels. 
• Improved energy efficiency: EVs are generally more energy efficient than gasoline vehicles, converting over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels, compared to about 12%–30% for gasoline vehicles. This translates to significant savings on fuel costs. 
• Lower powertrain maintenance costs: EVs have fewer moving parts than gasoline vehicles, resulting in lower maintenance costs over time. Electric motors require less frequent servicing, and regenerative braking can reduce brake wear. 
• Smooth and quiet operation: EVs offer a smooth and quiet driving experience due to the electric motor's ability to operate silently. This can contribute to a more enjoyable and relaxing driving experience. 
• Access to HOV lanes: In many jurisdictions, EVs are eligible to use high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, even when driving alone, potentially saving time during rush hour commutes.

Cons

• Higher upfront cost: EVs typically have had a higher initial purchase price compared to gasoline vehicles, although this gap is narrowing as EV technology advances and more manufacturers release new vehicles. 
• Higher tire cost and shorter life: EVs are heavier than conventional cars due to their batteries, which puts extra strain on the tires, particularly during cornering and braking. The electric motors also deliver immediate torque to the wheels, which can increase tire scrubbing and abrasion on the road. According to estimates from Goodyear and Michelin, EV tires wear out at least 20-50% faster than conventional tires, and cost 20-30% more. 
• Range anxiety: Range anxiety refers to the concern that an EV's battery may run out of power before reaching a charging station. While EV ranges are improving, they still lag behind gasoline vehicles. 
• Limited charging infrastructure: The availability of public charging stations is still relatively limited, especially in rural areas. This can make long-distance travel challenging for EV owners. 
• Longer charging times: Charging an EV battery takes significantly longer than refueling a gasoline vehicle. While fast-charging technology is improving, Level 2 charging can take several hours, and Level 1 charging can take overnight. 
• Battery degradation: EV batteries can degrade over time, reducing their range and efficiency. Battery replacement can be expensive. 
• Heavier weight: EVs are generally heavier than gasoline vehicles due to the weight of the battery pack. This can affect handling and performance. 
• Volatile market: The EV landscape is changing fast and frequently, which may negatively affect current and future resale value.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

Hybrid electric vehicles rely on a combination of an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors powered by batteries. The battery's energy is replenished through regenerative braking, which captures kinetic energy during deceleration, and by the internal combustion engine itself. 

This synergetic interplay between the two power sources not only enhances fuel economy but also reduces emissions. The electric motor's additional oomph allows for a smaller, more efficient engine, further enhancing fuel efficiency. Moreover, the battery can power auxiliary loads and eliminate the need for engine idling when the vehicle is stationary, further contributing to overall fuel savings.

Pros

• Government incentives: The purchase or lease of an HEV is subject to similar incentives as an EV, but the benefits are generally smaller than EVs.  
• Improved Fuel Economy: HEVs typically achieve significantly better fuel economy than gasoline vehicles, especially in city driving. This can lead to substantial savings on fuel costs over time. 
• Reduced emissions: HEVs produce lower tailpipe emissions than gasoline vehicles, contributing to cleaner air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. 
• Regenerative braking: HEVs capture energy during braking and use it to recharge the battery, further improving fuel efficiency. 
• Smooth and quiet operation: HEVs offer a smooth and quiet driving experience due to the electric motor's ability to operate silently. 

Cons

• Higher upfront cost: HEVs typically have a higher initial purchase price compared to gasoline vehicles. 
• Battery degradation: Hybrid batteries can degrade over time, reducing their range and efficiency. 
• Limited Electric Range: HEVs have limited electric-only range, requiring the gasoline engine to operate at higher speeds or when the battery is depleted. 
• Additional maintenance: HEVs may have additional maintenance costs associated with the hybrid system, such as battery replacement. 
• Limited cargo space: The battery pack in HEVs can sometimes occupy cargo space, reducing overall storage capacity.

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles seamlessly blend the power of electric motors with the practicality of gasoline engines. Unlike conventional hybrids, PHEVs can be plugged into an external power source, such as a wall outlet or charging station, to replenish their battery packs. This versatility allows PHEVs to operate predominantly in electric mode for shorter trips, reducing fuel consumption and emissions. When the battery's energy dwindles, the gasoline engine seamlessly takes over, ensuring uninterrupted journeys. This dual powertrain configuration not only enhances fuel efficiency but also minimizes range anxiety, making PHEVs a compelling choice for eco-conscious drivers.  

Pros

• Government incentives: The purchase or lease of a PHEV is subject to similar incentives as an EV, but the benefits are generally smaller than EVs. 
• Extended electric range: PHEVs have a larger battery capacity than conventional hybrids, allowing for longer electric-only driving distances. This can significantly reduce fuel consumption and emissions, especially for short commutes. 
• Versatility of gasoline engine: The gasoline engine provides backup power for longer trips or when the battery is depleted, eliminating range anxiety. This versatility makes PHEVs suitable for a wider range of driving needs. 
• Potential fuel savings: PHEVs can achieve significant fuel savings compared to gasoline vehicles, especially if they are driven primarily on electric power. This can translate to lower fuel costs over time. 
• Reduced tailpipe emissions: PHEVs produce lower tailpipe emissions than gasoline vehicles, contributing to cleaner air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

Cons

• Higher upfront cost: PHEVs typically have a higher initial purchase price compared to gasoline vehicles, although the gap is narrowing as PHEV technology advances. 
• Battery degradation: PHEV batteries can degrade over time, reducing their range and efficiency. Battery replacement can be expensive. 
• Limited cargo space: The battery pack in PHEVs can sometimes occupy cargo space, reducing overall storage capacity. 
• Complex charging routine: PHEVs require regular charging to maximize their electric-only range, which adds an extra step to the vehicle maintenance routine. 
• Dependence on Gasoline Engine: While offering electric-only driving, PHEVs still rely on gasoline for longer trips, contributing to emissions and fuel consumption.

Flex-Fuel Vehicles (FFV)

Flexible fuel vehicles, also known as dual-fuel vehicles, possess internal combustion engines that can run on a combination of gasoline and ethanol blends, with ethanol concentrations reaching up to 83%. E85, a type of flex fuel, is a gasoline-ethanol mixture containing between 51% and 83% ethanol, depending on geographical location and seasonal variations.  

Apart from an ethanol-friendly fuel system and a modified powertrain calibration, FFVs closely resemble their gasoline-exclusive counterparts. Despite a tendency for reduced fuel economy (miles per gallon) as ethanol content rises (engines are designed for gasoline), many FFVs exhibit enhanced acceleration when fueled with higher ethanol blends. 

Pros

• Government incentives: The purchase or lease of an FFV is subject to similar incentives as an EV, but the benefits are generally much smaller. 
• Environmentally friendly: Flex-fuel vehicles can run on a blend of gasoline and ethanol, which is a renewable fuel source. Ethanol is made from plant-based materials, such as corn or sugarcane, and it produces fewer emissions than gasoline. 
• Fuel cost savings: Ethanol is often cheaper than gasoline, so flex-fuel vehicles can potentially save drivers money on fuel costs.

Cons

• Limited fuel availability: Ethanol is not as widely available as gasoline, so it can be difficult to find stations that sell E85, the most common blend of ethanol. 
• Lower fuel economy: Flex-fuel vehicles typically get slightly lower fuel economy than gasoline vehicles when running on E85. 
• Higher maintenance costs: Flex-fuel vehicles may have slightly higher maintenance costs than gasoline vehicles. 
• Potential engine damage: Using E85 in cold weather can damage the engine, so it is important to use a blend of gasoline and ethanol that is appropriate for the weather conditions.

Fuel Cell Hydrogen Vehicles (FCEV)

Similar to all-electric vehicles, FCEVs employ an electric motor as their driving force. However, unlike their battery-powered counterparts, they generate electricity using a hydrogen-fueled cell rather than solely relying on a battery. During the design phase, automakers determine the vehicle's power output by carefully matching the size of the electric motor(s) with the capacity of the fuel cell and battery combination.  

While some FCEVs possess plug-in capabilities to replenish the battery, most utilize the battery for regenerative braking, short-burst acceleration, and power smoothing. Additionally, the battery serves as a backup when power demands are low, allowing the fuel cell to rest or shut down. 

Unlike all-electric vehicles, where energy storage is solely dictated by battery size, FCEVs derive their power from the combined capacity of the hydrogen fuel tank and the battery. This distinction sets FCEVs apart, offering a unique blend of electric mobility and hydrogen-fueled energy.   

The only manufacturers currently offering FCEVs are Hyundai and Toyota, and you would need to live near a retail hydrogen fueling location. More information is available at Hyundai and Toyota dealerships. 

Pros

• Zero tailpipe emissions: FCEVs produce only water vapor as a byproduct, contributing to cleaner air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. 
• Long driving range: FCEVs can travel up to 350 miles on a single tank of hydrogen, comparable to gasoline-powered vehicles. 
• Rapid refueling: Refueling an FCEV takes only a few minutes, similar to refueling a gasoline-powered vehicle. 
• Quiet operation: FCEVs operate silently, providing a more enjoyable driving experience. 
• Smooth performance: FCEVs deliver smooth and responsive acceleration due to the electric motor's characteristics.

Cons

• Limited Infrastructure: The hydrogen refueling infrastructure is still in its early stages of development, making it challenging to find refueling stations, so you would need to live and work near a refueling location. 
• Higher upfront cost: FCEVs typically have a higher initial purchase price compared to gasoline vehicles due to the cost of the fuel cell technology. 
• Hydrogen production challenges: Producing hydrogen in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner remains a challenge. 
• Higher upfront cost: FCEVs typically have a higher initial purchase price compared to gasoline vehicles due to the cost of the fuel cell technology. 
• Hydrogen production challenges: Producing hydrogen in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner remains a challenge. 
• Hydrogen storage and transportation: Storing and transporting hydrogen safely and efficiently requires specialized infrastructure. 
• Fuel cost: Hydrogen fuel can be more expensive than gasoline in some regions. 
• The only manufacturers currently offering FCEVs are Hyundai and Toyota.

Rear Wheel Drive (RWD)

A rear-wheel drive (RWD) car is a type of vehicle where the engine's power is transmitted to the rear wheels only, propelling the car forward. This is in contrast to front-wheel drive (FWD) cars, where the power goes to the front wheels, and all-wheel drive (AWD) cars, where power is sent to all four wheels. Here's a breakdown of the key characteristics of RWD cars: 

Transmission

• RWD cars typically use a driveshaft to transfer power from the engine to the rear wheels. 
• This differs from FWD cars, which transmit power through axles, and AWD cars, which use more complex drivetrains with differentials to distribute power to all wheels.

Handling

• RWD cars are known for their more dynamic handling due to the weight distribution. With the heavier engine positioned at the front, there's more weight over the rear tires, leading to better grip and traction during acceleration and cornering. 
• This weight distribution also allows for more precise steering feel, as the front wheels are solely focused on steering and not also responsible for powering the car.

Performance

• RWD cars are often seen as more performance-oriented due to their handling characteristics and the potential for drifting. 
• Many sports cars and muscle cars are RWD for these reasons. However, it's important to note that performance isn't solely defined by drivetrain layout, and modern FWD and AWD cars can also be very capable.

Drawbacks

• RWD cars can be less stable and more prone to oversteer in slippery conditions like rain or snow, as the rear wheels are responsible for both propulsion and grip. 
• They may also be less fuel-efficient than FWD cars, as the additional drivetrain components create more energy losses.

Front Wheel Drive (FWD) 

A front-wheel drive (FWD) vehicle is one where the engine's power is transmitted only to the front wheels, propelling the car forward. This differs from rear-wheel drive (RWD) vehicles where power goes to the rear wheels and all-wheel drive (AWD) vehicles where power is distributed to all four wheels. Here's a breakdown of the key characteristics of FWD cars:

Drivetrain

• FWD cars typically use axles to transmit power from the engine to the front wheels. This simpler layout compared to RWD cars with driveshafts contributes to their lower cost and weight.  
• The engine and transmission are often positioned transversely across the engine bay, further maximizing space efficiency.

Handling

• FWD cars generally have understeer as the natural handling characteristic. This means when going too fast into a corner, the front wheels lose grip and tend to push straight instead of turning sharply. 
• This can be perceived as more predictable and stable for everyday driving, especially in slippery conditions. However, some driving enthusiasts might find it less engaging than the more dynamic handling of RWD cars.

Fuel Efficiency

• Due to their simpler drivetrain and lighter weight, FWD cars are often more fuel-efficient than RWD cars, especially in city driving. This makes them a popular choice for commuters and budget-conscious buyers.

Drawbacks of FWD

• While generally stable, FWD cars can struggle with limited traction in deep snow or off-road situations compared to AWD vehicles. 
• They may also have less towing capacity compared to RWD or AWD options.

All Wheel Drive (AWD) 

All An all-wheel drive (AWD) vehicle is one where the engine's power can be distributed to all four wheels depending on the driving conditions. This differs from both front-wheel drive (FWD) where power goes only to the front wheels and rear-wheel drive (RWD) where it goes only to the rear wheels. AWD combines the benefits of both, offering improved traction and handling in a wider range of situations. Here's a deeper dive into AWD vehicles.

Types of AWD

• Torque-vectoring AWD: This advanced system can distribute power differently to each wheel or axle, further improving handling and performance.  
• Part-time AWD: Power is usually sent to only the rear or front wheels, but can be changed manually on some models and automatically on others, like when the car detects wheel slip. This offers a balance between fuel efficiency and traction. 
• Full-time AWD: Power is constantly sent to all four wheels, even on dry pavement. This provides the best all-weather grip and handling but can be less fuel-efficient.

Benefits of AWD

• Improved traction: All four wheels providing grip can be especially helpful in slippery conditions like rain, snow, and mud. 
• Enhanced handling: AWD can improve cornering stability and control, particularly in challenging situations. 
• Increased capability: Some AWD vehicles are designed for off-road use, offering added confidence on rough terrain.

Drawbacks of AWD

• Increased cost: AWD systems are generally more complex and expensive than FWD or RWD systems. 
• Reduced fuel efficiency: AWD vehicles typically have slightly lower fuel economy due to the additional drivetrain components and power distribution. 
• Maintenance: AWD systems may require more frequent and specialized maintenance compared to simpler drivetrains.

Ultimately, the choice between RWD, FWD, and AWD depends on your individual needs and preferences. FWD vehicles offer a good balance of practicality, affordability, and fuel efficiency, making them a popular choice for everyday driving.  If you prioritize handling, performance, and driving engagement, a RWD car might be a good option. If you value stability in all weather conditions and off-road capability, an AWD car would be a better fit.